Ramsar Convention

Ramsar Convention
India became a contracting party to the Ramsar Convention in 1981 and has been implementing conservation programmes for wetlands mangroves and coral reefs.

Until 2007, 25 wetland sites in India were designated as Ramsar sites of International Importance. There is close coordination between implementing units of Ramsar with that of CBD at the national level. 

India took a lead role in the formulation of Ramsar guidelines on integration of wetlands into river basin management. As a follow up to this, CBD- Ramsar River Basin initiative was undertaken and a joint programme was developed for integrated management of wetlands, biological diversity, and river basins.

Several wide-ranging policies, strategies, and plans have been formulated policy statements on Environment and Development (1992) and national Water Policy (2002) highlight conservation and sustainable development of wetlands. 

There are effective linkages across various ministries and government agencies, including Ministry of Environment and Forests, planning Commission, Ministry of Agriculture, and Indian Board for Wildlife Forest Research Institute, Institute of Wetland Management and Ecological Design among others.

Key policies and programmes relevant to sustainable development Economic

Key policies and programmes relevant to sustainable development Economic:

New industrial Policy, 1991

Pharmaceuticals Policy, 2002

Marketing Assistance Scheme for SME

Export Promotion Capital Goods Scheme

National Mineral Policy, 2008

New Exploration and Licensing Policy

National Telecom policy, 2011

National Electricity Policy, 2005

Social:

Key policies and programmes National Housing and Habitat Policy, 1998

Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojna, 2000

National Policy for Empowerment of Women, 2001

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan, 2003

National Policy for Urban street Vendors, 2004

National Rural Health Mission, 2005

National Food security mission, 2007

National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy, 2007

Debt Waiver and debt Relief Scheme, 2008

National Mission on Education, 2009

Environment:

United Nations Framework Convention on climate Change (UNFCCC)

United Nations Framework Convention on climate Change (UNFCCC)

India signed the UNFCCC on 10 June 1992 and ratified it on 1 November 1993 .it acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in August 2002. 

Under the UNFCCC, developing countries such as India do not have binding Green House gas (GHG) mitigation commitments through application of the Principle of Common, but Differentiated Responsibility and Respective Capability (CBDR).

As agreed in Copenhagen, India communicated to the UNFCCC secretariat, its voluntary mitigation actions to reduce the emissions intensity of GDP by 20-25 percent by 2020 in comparison to the 2005 level, excluding the agriculture sector. 

The Government’s stand on climate change is in accordance with the principles of equity, and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities as enshrined in the UNFCCC. 

The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), released on 30 June 2008, outlines India’s strategy to meet the challenge of climate change. 

The National Action Plan provides for eight missions that will enable the country to adapt to climate change and enhance the ecological sustainability of India’s development path.

Environment / Nature conservation / Hazardous material / Marine Environment

     Environment

India has been very active in all the international forums relating to environmental protection and has signed all the multilateral agreements relating to the environment with a few exceptions. In 2002, India reaffirmed its commitment to sustainable development in the World Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg. India is a part of 94 major mutilated environmental agreements (MEAs) listed in Environment Treaties and Resource indicators.

Multilateral Environmental Agreements by India

Nature conservation

1.       Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

2.       Convention on international Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES).

3.       The wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC)

4.       Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)

5.       Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT)

6.       Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

7.       International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTC)

8.       United Nations Forum on forests (UNFF)

9.       International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

10.   Global Tiger Forum (GTF)

Hazardous material

International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions

International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions

India is one of the founder members of the international Labour Organization (ILO). The influence of ILO Conventions as a standard of reference for labour legislation and practices in India has been significant. Under the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulations) Act, 1986 and through the National Policy on Child labour, ILO has financially supported preparation of certain industry specific projects in India. The implementation of the international Programme of Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in India has created a positive impact towards understanding the problem of child labour and highlighting the need for elimination of child labour.

Human Rights conventions

India is also party to a number of major international treaties on human rights. These include international Convention on the  Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1968) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1979) ,Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1993) and Convention on the rights of the Child (1992) with regard to international criminal law, India is party to Slavery Convention of 1926, genocide Convention of 1948 and the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity of 1968. 

 Social

India is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in all of its specialized agencies. India’s representation has provided an opportunity for leadership in words affairs. India was at the forefront of the UN’s struggle against colonialism and apartheid, its effort towards global disarmament, and towards the creation of a more equitable international order.

International Agreements and India

Principles by Themes

The following themes occur in a number of sets of principles:

·         Alternative energy sources

·         Assumption of greater responsibility by industrial nations for sustainability solutions.

·         Clarifying and acting on values

·         Diversity of life

·         Elimination of over-consumption

·         Eradication of poverty

·         Gender equity

·         Greater democratic participation in decision- making

·         Increased access to reliable information

·         International cooperation/global partnership

·         Limits to nature’s resources

·         Needs of future generations

·         Peace and security

·         Precautionary principle

 International Agreements and India

Since the United Nations Stockholm Conference of the Human Environment in 1972, the international environmental legal regime has experienced manifold progress. At a broader level, the agreements regime has expanded in scope since environmental issues are no longer considered in isolation to social and economic concerns. With economic growth and development, issues related to ecological sustainability and social equity have also been receiving growing importance. India has remained at the forefront of global sustainable development policy formulation and has supported the development of global agreements and policies that are fair and equitable.

Key Agreements

1.       Economic:

Global trade agreements

Some definitions of SD(sustainable development)

Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is form Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report:

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains which it two key concepts:

·         The concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and

·         The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.”

Organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.’

All definitions of sustainable development require that we see the world as a system- a system that connects space; and a system that connects time.

When you think of the world as a system over space, you grow to understand that air pollution from North America affects air quality in Asia, and that pesticides sprayed in Argentina could harm fish stocks off the coast of Australia.

And when you think of the world as a system over time, you start to realize that the decisions our grandparents made about how to farm the land continue to affect agricultural practice today; and the economic policies we endorse today will have an impact on urban poverty when our children are adults.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

A Brief History of Sustainable Development

The Sustainability Reporting Program works from a definition of sustainability that sees human activities as part of and dependent upon the natural world. In Scientific terms, the human ecosystem, including the communities we build, is a subset of the larger ecosystem of the Earth.

Sustainability is about meeting basic human needs and wants. People value their health and that of their children, economic security and happiness. These are primary elements in our quality of life.

Most definitions stress that sustainability requires making decisions that recognize the connections between actions and effects in the environment, economy and society. Sustainability is very much about what kind of a legacy we want to leave for our children and grandchildren.

The sustainability idea as we know it emerged in a series of meetings and reports during the 1970s and 1980s. In 1972, the UN Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment marked the first great international meeting on how human activities were harming the environment and putting humans at risk.

The 1980 World Conservation Strategy, prepared by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature along with the UN Environment Program and the World Wildlife Fund, promoted the idea of environmental protection in the self-interest of the human species.

In 1987, the UN- sponsored Brundtland Commission released Our Common Future, a report that captured widespread concerns about the environment and poverty in many parts of the world.

The Brundtland report said that economic development cannot stop, but it must change course to fit within the planet’s ecological limits. It also popularized the term sustainable development, which it defined as development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Biome / UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

Biome

The natural ecosystems on global scale having almost similar biotic and a biotic conditions are called as biome. A Biome is a major ecological region of distinctive plant and animal group well adapted to the physical environment of its distribution area. The studies of biomes include study of global distribution Patten of climate, soil, plants and animals as well as their special adaptations to the regional climate.  

Vegetation is the most dominant component of biomes due to their enormous biomass. Vegetation and climate in turn are inter-related and world is divided into different biomes on the basis of major world climates, as following:

1.       Terrestrial Biome

(a)    Tundra Biome

(b)   Temperate Biome – Taiga Forest; Temperate Deciduous Forest; Temperate Grassland ; and Mediterranean

(c)    Tropical Biome - Desert; Tropical savanna ; and Tropical Forest

2.       Freshwater Biome

3.       Marine Biome

We will study Monsoon Biome which is actually included in Deciduous Forest Biome under Tropical Biome.

Monsoon Forest Biome

Strategic plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 / Aichi Biodiversity Targets Aichi Biodiversity Targets

Strategic plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, including Aichi Biodiversity Targets

Aichi Biodiversity Targets

The tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held in October 2010, in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets for the 2011-2020 periods. This new plan will be the overacting framework on Biodiversity, not only for the biodiversity –related conventions, but for the entire United Nations system.

Aichi Biodiversity Targets: Fewer than five broad strategic goals 20 targets have been decided.

·         Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society.

·         Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on Biodiversity and promote sustainable use.

·         Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity.

·         Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.

·         Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning knowledge management and capacity building.

Nagoya Protocol / Cartagena Protocol

Nagoya Protocol

The Nagoya  Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding, thereby contributing to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components. It was adapted by the Conference of the parties to the Convention biological Diversity at its tenth meeting in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. The Nagoya Protocol will enter into force 90 days after the date of deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources is one of the three objectives of the convention on Biological Diversity.

Cartagena Protocol

 The Cartagena protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

     Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legally-binding treaty with three main goals: conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. Its overall objective is to encourage actions which will lead to a sustainable future.

The conservation of Biodiversity is a common concern of humankind. The CBD covers biodiversity at all levels: Ecosystems, species and genetic resources. It also covers biotechnology through the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In fact, it covers all possible domains that are directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its role in development, ranging from science, politics and education to agriculture, business, culture and much more. The governing body of the CBD is the Conference of the Parties (COP). This ultimate authority of all governments (or parties) that have ratified the treaty meets every two year to review progress, set priorities and commit to work plans.

In 2010. Parties to the CBD adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011- 2020, a ten-year framework for action by all countries and stakeholders to safeguard biodiversity and the benefits it provides to people.

The secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) is based in Montreal, Canada. Its main function is to assist Governments In the implementation of the CBD and its programmes of work, to organize meetings, draft documents, and coordinate with other international organizations and collect and spread information. The Executive Secretary is the head of the Secretariat.

Fast facts:

International Efforts - International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) – Red List of Threatened Species

International Efforts

1.       International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) – Red List of Threatened Species: IUCN publishes the list of species of plants and animals which hare threatened for their survival and are facing extinction from time to time. It contains following categories:

(a)    Extinct species

(b)   Extinct in Wild species

(c)    Critically Endangered species

(d)   Endangered species

(e)   Vulnerable species

(f)     Near Threatened species

(g)    Least concern species

Few important Categories:

(1)    Endangered species- those in immediate danger of extermination i.e. extinction.

(2)    Critically endangered species- will not survive without direct human intervention and protection.

(3)    Threatened species- so called because of decline in numbers.

(4)    Rare species- not presently in danger but are subject to risk.

Carbon trading / Ball Action Plan –COP- 13

Carbon trading

It is a name given to the exchange of emission permits. This exchange of emissions may take place within the economy or may take the form of international transactions. Emission permit is known alternatively as carbon credit. Carbon credits are certificate awarded to the countries that are successful in reducing the emissions that caused global Warming. Carbon credits are measured units of certified emission reduction and each CER is equivalent to 1 metric ton of CO₂.

Methods/ Types of carbon trading

·         Emission trading / Cap and Trade – when a country is able to reduce its emissions by more than the specified amount it can exchange some of its credit to another country who fails to reduce its emission level as per assigned amount. This kind of exchange of emission allowance is called emission trading.

·         Offset trading – In this a country can invest in carbon projects abroad to earn carbon credit and thereby meet its reduction commitment. Offset trading is thus nothing but investment abroad in Carbon-project. According to Kyoto protocol if such a joint venture is between developed countries it is called joint implementation, while if it is taken along with any developing and poor country it is called clean development mechanism (CDM) .

Reducing GHG Emissions: Kyoto Mechanisms-

The UN’s Kyoto protocol established binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community. To help achieve these targets the protocol introduced three “flexible mechanisms”- international emissions trading (IET), joint implementation (JI), and the clean development Mechanism (CDM).

Parties to UNFCCC / Evaluation of Kyoto Protocol

Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:

·         Annex  I countries – industrialized countries and economies in transition

·         Annex II countries – developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries

·         Developing countries.

Annex I countries which have ratified the Protocol have committed to reduce their emission levels of greenhouse gasses to targets that are mainly set below their 1990 levels. They may do this by allocating reduced annual allowances to the major operators within their borders. These operators can only exceed their allocations if they buy emission allowances, or offset their excesses through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to UNFCCC.

Annex II countries are a sub-group of the Annex I countries. They comprise the OECD members, excluding those that were economies in transition in 1992.

Developing countries are not required to reduce emission levels unless developed countries supply enough funding and technology. Setting no immediate restrictions under UNFCCC serves three purposes:

·         It avoids restrictions on their development because emissions are strongly  linked to industrial capacity

·         They can sell emissions credits to nations whose operators have difficulty meeting their emissions targets

·         They get money and technologies for low- carbon investments from Annex II countries.

Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries when they are sufficiently developed.

Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHGs emission in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activities, the protocol places a heavier burden on developed countries under the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. The Kyoto protocol was adopted in Kyoto in Japan on December 11, 1997 and entered into force on Feb 16, 2005.

Evaluation of Kyoto Protocol

International Remedial Measures

A.      For Ozone Hole

(1)    Vienna convention, 1985 for protection and maintenance of ozone layer.

(2)    Montreal Protocol on substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987 (a protocol to Vienna Convention). It was established to protect ozone layer by phasing out the production of ozone depleting substances such as CFCs, halons by 1996. It gave 10 years extension period for developing countries.

(3)    Toronto Summit, 1988 for reduction in the emission of CO₂.

(4)    London Convention 1989: it sought (a) ban on CFC and halons by 2000; (b) recognition of methyl chloroform and carbon tetrachloride as ozone depleltors; (c) setting up of special fund.

(5)    Inter – Government Panel on Climate change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 by UNEP and WMO.

B.      For Global warming

1.       First Earth Summit or United Nations Conference on Environment and development, 1992: 

Global warming / Green house Gas effect

Green house Gas effect

Green house is a glass house that helps in artificial cultivation of plants by providing a conducive environment for their growth. GHE was given its name by French physicist named Joseph Fourier in 1827 who compared the Earth atmosphere to a closed glass vessel and observed that air around the earth filters sunlight exactly like glass roof.

Global warming refers to phenomena of increased trapping of terrestrial radiations (infra-red waves) because of increased concentration of GHG resulting in increase of average global temperature on the earth surface. GHG that are responsible for Green House effect in atmosphere include carbon –di-oxide

(Largest volume), methane, and chlorofluorocarbons (highest trapping capacity, oxide of nitrogen, sculpture hexafluoride and water vapors. GHG found in atmosphere cover the earth like a blanket. Although high concentrations of these gases are harmful to the environment, if these gases would not have been there then the temperature of the Earth would have been 18 ⁰C or- 19⁰ C. Of all GHG emitted in the atmosphere CO₂ and CH₄ are having maximum concentration, they both together account for 90% of the GHG emissions.

Because of excessive deforestation, use of fossil fuel, automobile exhaust and various other industrial activities. The level of CO₂ especially has significantly increased which has resulted in increased temperature of earth surface, in 1957 it was recorded 311 ppm (parts per million) and in 2005 it was recorded as 379 ppm. Global warming has occurred in two phases from 1910 to 1940 by about 0.350⁰C and more strongly from 1970 onwards to the present by about 0.55⁰ C, taking the global temperature to about 14.4⁰C. If the increased concentration of CO2 and other GHG continues this way by the end of 21^st century, earth will became altogether an inhabitable planted.

Impact of Global Warming

Mechanisms of Ozone Depletion

1.       Natural process: Ultra Violet Solar Radiation; increased solar radiation from sun sports; redistribution of ozone due to upper atmospheric circulation.

2.       Anthropogenic Processes: The chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and halous released from synthetic chemicals using devices such as refrigerators, spray can dispensers etc reach stratosphere and breakdown the ozone molecule. Similarly sulfur aerosols e.g. HF₆ emitted from factories, nitrous oxides (NO) molecules released from jet places cause destruction of ozone molecules. With rise in worldwide aviation travel NO release into stratosphere is rising causing both ozone depletion and global warming. A large ozone hole was observed to have been formed over Antarctica but measures taken subsequent to Montreal Protocol have substantially helped to recover the hole with ozone again.

Effects of Ozone Depletion

1.       UV rays will reach earth’s surface causing rise of earth’s temperature causing global warming. CFC increases the greenhouse effect of greenhouse effect of CO₂.

Processes of Global warming

Major sources and processes of Global warming include ozone depletion and greenhouse effects. Ozone depleting substances contribute to global warming by increasing UV radiation.

1.       Ozone Depletion: The stratospheric ozone layer is mostly concentrated between attitudes of 12km to 35 km from earth’s surface. It is considered as protective shield and earth’s umbrella because it prevents ultra violet (UV) solar radiation from reaching the earth’s surface. Thus the presence of ozone layer in the stratosphere is of vital significance for all biota including plants, animal and man in the biosphere. In the absence of this layer no life is possible in the biosphere because all the UV rays of the sun will reach earth’s surface and consequently temperature of the earth’s surface and lower atmosphere will rise to such an extent that the earth will turn into a blast furnace.

The ozone is produced by the actions of UV rays on ordinary oxygen atoms by the photochemical process which is responsible for the constant transformation of oxygen to ozone and form ozone back to oxygen.

O₂ + O ≈O₃

Thus constant formation and destruction of ozone is natural process if not interfered by man.

GLOBAL WARMING & CLIMATE CHANGE

Global warming refers to gradual rise in atmospheric and ground surface air temperatures and conseques changes in global radiation balance, caused mainly by anthropogenic processes leading to climatic changes at different levels. Global warming is a result of rise in proportion of atmospheric green house gases (GHG) than their normal level. The rise of GHG levels has been attributed to the process of industrialization, urbanization and pollution caused by vehicular, industrial, domestic and agricultural emissions. The main component gases of GHG emissions are – carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide and ozone. The processes of global warming have led to the effects of climate change, the evidences of which have been scientifically corroborated by international panel on Climate Change (IPCC), formed under United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) and constituted by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

Evidences of Global warming:

1.       Increase in air temperatures: It has been estimated that the overall increase in the air temperature in 20^th century has been about 0.5 to 0.7º C. The 1990s saw seven out of ten warmest years of last century. The global circulation models have shown rise of 0.4 to 0.8º C in the 20^th century. The increase in frequency of EI Nino events, hurricanes and cyclones between 1970s to 2012 also denotes climatic changes due to warming of earth’s surface and its atmosphere. IPCC report has shown that concentration of atmospheric CO2 has increased.

2.       Melting of Mountain and Continental Glaciers: Many reports have suggested that Himalayan   Glaciers have receded. Similarly there have been reports of retreat of glaciers in Alps of New Zealand. Mt. Kenya has lost its most extensive glaciers in the past century. The glaciers of Greenland too have been detaching and receding at fast pace.

3.        Warming of Ocean Water and melting of ice Sheets and ice Bergs in Antarctic and Arctic Sea.

Functioning of an Ecosystem

Functioning of an Ecosystem

An ecosystem is driven by the flow of energy and circulation of matter by biogeochemical cycle between the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The solar radiation is the basic input of energy entering the ecosystem. In the living organisms or biosphere, the energy (chemical energy) and matter (food), collectively called as food energy, are transferred via food chain and food web through various trophic levels. Thus all the elements of an ecosystem are interdependent and integrated. An ecosystem itself is integrated with other ecosystems and thus they all become interdependent. In fact every ecosystem is part of the larger ecosystem, until the larger ecosystem of the earth-the biosphere – is formed. That is why we see climatic changes happening in one ecosystem affecting the other ecosystems.

Productivity of Ecosystem

Only a small fraction of sunlight striking the earth is concerted to chemical energy by primary producers. The rate of conversion of solar energy into chemical energy (organic matter) by autotrophs is called productivity of ecosystem. The productivity of ecosystem depends to two things:-

(i)                  The availability of solar radiation to autotrophic primary producers. The productivity of ecosystems goes in decreasing from equator to poles as the amount of solar energy received goes on decreasing from equator to poles. Therefore, plants in tropical areas will have higher productivity than plants in temperate or tundra region.

(ii)                The efficiency of plants to concert solar energy into food or chemical energy which is also called as primary production. It is measured in two ways:

(a)    Gross primary productivity which is total amount of chemical energy assimilated by the autotrophs from solar energy.

Ecosystem Ecology

Ecosystem Ecology emphasizes the movement of energy and nutrients among the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. It examines physical and biological structures and how these characteristics interact with each other. A major focus of ecosystem ecology is on functional processes, ecological mechanisms that maintain the structure and services produced by ecosystems. These include production of biomass, decomposition and tropic interactions. In short ecosystem ecology studies the interdependent functional processes behind food chain and food web and how all the applied to cases such as increased effects of atmospheric co₂ on coral reefs and fishes or to understand the effects of increased pesticides application on the pests and birds preying on them.

Ecosystems

Having done with basic concepts we will return to the ecosystems. As said earlier, ecosystem is a fundamental functional unit characterized by total assemblage of biotic community and abiotic components and their mutual interactions in a given space time unit.

Ecosystems can be classified as following:

(i)                 On the basis of habitats:

(a)   Terrestrial – Upland or mountain; Lowland; Warm Desert and Cold Desert.

(b)   Aquatic – Fresh Water; Marine.

(ii)               On the basis of human intervention:

(a)   Natural ecosystems e.g. tall grass or Amazon rainforest ecosystem.

(b)   Artificial or cultivated ecosystems e.g. rice field ecosystem.

Components of the Ecosystem

Biosphere

Biosphere

Having defend ecology and ecosystem, the next thing is biosphere. In simple words, biosphere is the largest i.e. earth. Alternatively it is the global sum of all ecosystems on the earth. Biosphere is that part of the earth which contains living organisms- the biologically inhabited soil, air and water. So, biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Biosphere becomes the largest ecosystem because it (the biospheric ecosystem) consists of biotic component (plants, animals, man, and micro-organisms), abiotic component (land, air and water) and energy component (solar and geothermal energy) and these are on the scale of earth.

The components are inter-related through a series of large cyclic mechanisms, collectively called as biogeochemical cycle. In biospheric ecosystem there is a continuous exchange of energy and matter. While the circulation of energy is unidirectional, the materials are circulated cyclically called as biogeochemical cycle.

Biosphere when referred as one of the geochemical cycle components alongside lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere it means reference to the biota i.e. total sum of all living beings. These four spheres are the components of above mentioned biogeochemical cycle. In such a scenario the term ‘ecosphere ‘is used as encompassing of both biological and physical components of the planet.

There are some experiments of creating artificial biosphere involving closed ecosystem which are going on. For example, Biosphere 2 in USA, BIOS – 3 in Russia and Biosphere –j in Japan. Thus we can say those biospheres are any closed, self regulating systems containing ecosystems including the artificial ones.

Ecology

Ecology is the science which studies the inter-relationships between biotic and a biotic components of a natural ecosystem on one hand among biotic components on the other. Thus ecology is the study of interrelationships and various processes between all organisms and their environment as well as among the organisms themselves.   

Ernst Haeckel coined the term ‘Oekology’ (Greek: oikos – house or dwelling as habitat, logos—study of). The concept of ecology evolved from Darwin’s concept of evolution of species through natural selection involving interaction between biological species and habitat.

Ecology is studied into two branches. First, autecology is the study of ecological relationship of single species in a given ecosystem. Second, synecology is the study of group of species living together as communities in relation to their habitats of a given ecosystem. It can be mentioned here that a group of individual organisms of the same species in a given area is called a population. While a group of population of different species in a given area is called a community. Based on this we have population ecology and community ecology.

The basic concepts and the focus areas of ecology are as follows:

(1)   Ecosystem as the fundamental unit of ecological study.

ECOSYSTEM & ECOLOGY

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a fundamental functional unit of ecological study. An ecosystem is a system – ecological system – in which organisms interact with each other and with their environment in a given and unit-time. In other words an ecosystem is a biotic community together with its physical environment considered as an integrated unit. Implied within this definition is the concept of a structural and functional unit, unified through life processes.

An ecosystem is broadly composed of two components:

(1)   Biome – All the plants, animal and microorganisms, in fact all the living beings in a given spatial unit. These are biotic elements.

(2)   Habitat – The Physical environment i.e. a biotic elements such as air, water and land.

Both these components are integrated by the continuous flow of energy and matter between them. We can call Energy as the third component of the ecosystem.

In other words each organism (including humans) is affected by and interacts with its environment. That environment is formed from a combination of interactive nonliving and living elements. When we consider both forms of elements and their interactions as a single entity we have an ecosystem at same level of organization.

Ecotourism

Ecotourism is defined as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well –being of local people.” (TIES)

“Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples.” (IUCN)

Ecotourism is broadly defined as low impact travel to endangered and often undisturbed locations. It is different from traditional tourism because it allows the traveler to become educated about the areas- both in terms of the physical landscape and cultural characteristics, and often provides funds for conservation and benefits the economic development of places that are frequently impoverished. Most tourism in natural areas today is not ecotourism and is not, therefore, sustainable. Ecotourism is distinguished by its emphasis on conservation, education, traveler responsibility and active community participation.

Ecotourism and other forms of sustainable travel have origins with the environmental movement of the 1970s. Ecotourism itself did not become prevalent as a travel concept until the late 1980s. During that time, increasing environmental awareness and a desire to travel to natural location as opposed to built up tourist locations made ecotourism desirable.

Principles of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that those who implement and participate in ecotourism activities should follow the following ecotourism principles;

·         Minimize impact.

Environments Management / Ecological Approach

The need for environmental management stems from the following facts:

(1)    Environmental or natural resources are finite.

(2)    Environmental is a closed system.

(3)    Environment is a natural gift and thus a public property.

(4)    Human induced environmental degradation is stretching the limits of ecological resilience and humans being the cause are responsible for solutions too.

There are following hurdles in environmental management:

--- Globalization, free market economy, regulation of WTO and denial to share the historical burden of environmental degradation by the developed countries.

----- Rapid growth of human population in developing and underdeveloped countries.

---- Irreversible and rapid rate of urbanization and industrialization and consequential increase in the consumption of natural resources.

----- Rapid change in social outlooks and values with consumption driven and use and throw culture.

---- Bad governance

----- Limitations in enforcing environmental laws and regulations.

----Social and religious impediments.

Environmental Management

It involves two management approaches -

1.       Command and control approach or top down approach – Government controlled, hierarchical order based approach.

2.       Participatory approach – decentralized, with participation of local communities, civil society. NGO along with government e.g. Approach suggested by Western Ghats Expert Ecology Committee.

Ecological Approach

Types of Succession

(1)    Primary succession: The succession process which starts in those base areas where there was no vegetation and animals earlier, is called primary succession. Such sites may be fresh lava flows, volcanic ash plains, newly formed sand dunes of flood plains, etc. it takes a very long period for the development of proper soil and arrival of pioneer vegetation communities. Slowly a vegetation community begins to develop passing through the seral stages such as herb community, scrub community, forest community or preclimax and finally climax community (climatic climax) . The vegetation supporting it is called climax vegetation. In the intervening stages all those rules of evolution such as intra and inter-specific competition, survival of fittest, natural selection, invasion of new plant and animal species, changes brought in by external forces etc work in full force.

(2)    Secondary succession: It refers to development of sequence of vegetation in those areas which had vegetation cover earlier but now have been rendered nude due to destruction of vegetation, either partly or completely, through either natural or manmade process e.g. Development of new forest on an abandoned land after shifting cultivation or jhum.

Ecosystem goods and Services / Ecological Services

Ecosystems provide many goods and services that are of vital importance for functioning of the biosphere, and provide basis for the delivery of tangible benefits to human society. These ecological services or benefits can be divided into following categories:

(1)    Supporting services:

Biotic Succession / Ecological Succession

The progressive replacement of one vegetation community in a given habitat by the other is called ecological succession. Succession implies sequential replacement of one plant community or the ecosystem by the other. A plant community is group of plants which are already adapted to a given habitat. In other words ecological succession is an evolutionary sequence of development of ecological community or ecosystem. The biotic succession continues through different phases called as ‘sere’ until a mature and equilibrium community called as climax community is formed.

Features of ecological succession

(1)    It has a particular direction.

(2)    It results from modification of physical environment by the community .Thus it is community controlled even though the environment sets the pattern and rate of change and often sets the limits as to how far development can go.

(3)    It ends in a stabilized ecosystem in which maximum biomass and symbiotic function between organisms are maintained per unit of available energy flow.

(4)    With succession following changes occur---

(a)    Diversity of species increases

(b)   Complex food chains develop

(c)    Biomass increases

(d)   Energy flow increases

(e)   New habitat niche are created

(f)     The climax or stable community controls or becomes buffer against physical forces like temperature, moisture, wind, light, etc.

The first organisms to become established in an ecosystem undergoing succession are known as pioneers. The stable community that is formed at the end of succession is called as climax community. The intermediate stages such as grassland, scrub, shrubs are called sere.

Ecosystem instability / Ecological Niche

Ecosystem instability refers to that state when an ecosystem is unable to adjust with environmental changes. The happens when the changes are continuous and enormous and these changes exceed the resilience or capacity of the ecosystem. The factors responsible for ecosystem stability or instability are always viewed in terms of ecosystem resilience. If the environmental changes exceed the ecosystem resilience, ecosystem instability is caused but when ecosystem is such that it can withstand environmental changes, ecosystem stability is maintained.

The ecosystem instability can occur due to natural factors such as massive volcanic eruption or climatic changes like ice age. Ecosystem instability is also induced due to manmade activities. For example,

(1)   Destruction of Himalayan ecosystem due to deforestation, overgrazing etc. leading to increased weathering and erosion of soil.

(2)   Replacement of natural vegetation and animal species by cultivation or urban land use.

(3)   Introduction of exotic plant species such as water hyacinth.

(4)   Changing the proportion of atmospheric gases, etc.

Ecological Niche

Ecological niche refers to the functional role and position of a species in relation to other species in the given ecosystem. In a natural ecosystem, several species of plant and animal communities perform different roles in getting food and thus each community is confined to certain locality having certain functions. Such locality having ideal environmental conditions for the survival of a species is called niche. The species of a given niche may not service in other niches. The ecosystem stability depends upon diversity of a niche. Greater the niche diversity, greater the stability of ecosystem. The ecosystem becomes unstable if one or more species are eliminated because then niche becomes empty and other species which were dependent on the eliminated species food now become vulnerable to elimination.

Ecological Stability

Ecosystem or ecological stability refers to capability of a natural ecosystem to apply self-regulating mechanisms so as to return to a steady state after an outside disturbance. Ecosystem stability meant there is a balance between production and consumption of each element in the ecosystem. The number of each species in a mature ecosystem generally remains constant.

The self regulatory mechanisms are also called homeostatic mechanisms .These are mainly negative and positive feedback mechanisms. For example. If the population of insects in a small ecosystem area increases greatly due to favorable climate, then food supply falls short of demand due to increased competition. Eventually some insects’ die of starvation and slowly the ecosystem returns to its original size.

Negative feedback occurs when the result of a process influences the operation of the process in such a way as to reduce changes. Negative feedback tends to make a system self-regulating. It can act as a stabilizing force and reduce the effect of fluctuations. Negative feedback loops where just the right amount of correction is applied in most timely manner can be very stable, accurate and responsive. Negative feedback controls the rate of a process to avoid accumulation of the product.

Oxygen Cycle

Similarly in the oxygen cycle the imbalances are likely to emerge due to industrial combustion since 1860’s industrial revolution and decreasing vegetation cover.

Hydrogen or Hydrological Cycle

It is also called hydrological cycle or water cycle as most of the hydrogen circulates in the biosphere in the form of H₂O- moisture or water. Hydrological cycle at global scale involves following sequential processes as Evaporation →Condensation → Precipitation (rainfall, snowfall) → Percolation into the ground and surface runoff, both eventually transferring to water bodies and oceans →Evaporation again.

Water is an important substance in the biosphere because

(i)                 It is able to dissolve almost all substances;

(ii)               It has great ability to store heat;

(iii)             It takes part in the nourishment of organisms and

(iv)              It helps in the circulation of elements in the biosphere etc

Any disturbance in the hydrological cycle through cumulative effects of decreased ground water storage due to urbanization, deforestation, decreased water level on the continents may have hazardous effects, though its full knowledge is not yet derived.

Carbon Cycle

The carbon circulates within biosphere in two cycles. In gaseous cycle it is present as free gas in the form of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and as a gas dissolved in the waters of sea and land (HCO₃⁻). In non-gaseous or solid cycle, it is present as biomass (carbohydrates i.e. - CH₂O compounds) in living/dead matter and as hydrocarbon compounds (petroleum, coal, natural gas) and as mineral carbonates in carbonate rocks (limestone, corals, i.e. - CaCO₃ compounds).

This carbon enters the biotic world through the action of autotrophy by the process of photosynthesis. The carbon then again returns back to the atmosphere and water by (I) respiration (CO₂); (ii) decay (producing CO₂ if oxygen is present methane (cH₄ if it is not).

The total amount of carbon in solid phase normally remains stored as it is. The carbon dioxide assimilated by plants is stored in the woody tissues of plants. This is called as organic reservoir of carbon. Forests are significant reservoirs of biological carbon of the biosphere (Carbon sink). The respiration by the biota releases CO₂ back into the atmosphere. Carbon is returned to the atmosphere at the same rate as it is removed, but in recent years the carbon concentration in the atmosphere has been increasing because of deforestation and burning of organic matter such as woods.

Simultaneously carbon from sedimentary (solid) phase is released into atmosphere mainly due to increased burning of fossil fuels and partly by weathering of rocks and volcanic eruption. In normal carbon cycle, the uptake and return of CO₂ occurs very slowly over a longer geological time scale. But the carbon cycle is being disturbed due to anthropogenic activities i.e. burning of fossil fuels, wood fuels and deforestation (forests are largest consumers of carbon dioxide). The gradual increase in concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would intensify green house effect of the atmosphere, resulting into global into global warming and climatic changes.

Biogeochemical Cycles

 One of the important manifestations of disturbances in the biogeochemical cycles is climatic extremes, recovery of ecosystems after extreme events or the climate change induced global warming itself. This gives the idea of importance of biogeochemical cycles. The circulation of matter (nutrients) in the biospheric ecosystem is accomplished in a series of cyclic pathways which are collectively known as biogeochemical cycle. A biogeochemical cycle is the cycling of chemical elements through the earth’s atmosphere, oceans and sediments as it is affected by the geological and biological cycles. It can be described as a series of compartments of storage reservoirs and pathways between these reservoirs. Biogeochemical cycles can be studied as cycles of individual elements such as carbon cycle. Hydrogen or water cycle, nitrogen cycle etc. Or broadly as Hydrological cycle, mineral cycle, etc.

Ecological Pyramid

This concept is often associated with description of food chains and food web. An ecological pyramid is an illustration of the reduction in energy as we move through each feeding (tropic) level in the ecosystem. The base of the pyramid is large since ecosystem’s energy factories (the plant producers) are converting solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. A food chain can also depict a reduction in energy at each tropic level if the arrow drawn at different levels; continue to be reduced in size.

Ecological pyramid can be represented in three ways:

(1)   Pyramid of numbers: it can be generated by counting all the organisms at different feeding levels. This is a difficult task as we are not just identifying each species in the ecosystem but also counting how many of each species are present. Sometimes this may not work. For example, one tree (a producer) can represent an ecosystem and harbor numerous populations of herbivores and carnivores. Thus, the bottom of pyramid would be very small and not broad.

(2)   Pyramid of biomass:

National Mission for Green India / National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

This mission aims to increase forest cover across the country to serve as carbon sinks removing green house has been released by the government. The mission aims at increasing green house gas removal by India’s forest to 6.35% of the country’s total emissions by 2020. It aims to reach national target of 33% land area under forest and from the current level of 23%. Under CAMPA (compensatory afforestation fund management and planning Authority) it was planned to increase the forest area in India by 10 million ha till 2020.

Recognizing that climate change phenomena will seriously affect and alter the distribution, type and quality of natural resources of the country and the associated livelihoods of the people, the mission aims at addressing climate change by enhancing carbon sinks, adaptation of vulnerable species and forest dependent local communities in the face of climatic variability.

This will be done through increasing and restoring the forest cover all over the country. It also aims at monitoring additional parameters like ground cover, soil condition, erosion and infiltration, run off, ground water levels to develop water budgets as well as biomass monitoring indicators. Gram Sabha and its various committees would be strengthened as institutions of decentralized forest governance.

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture-