Climate change, natural disasters and hazards risks

Climate change, natural disasters and hazards risks
Climate change and natural disasters pose a key challenge to sustainable development. Different ecological and climatic zones in India have made it differentially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. These impacts range from changes in temperature, precipitation and humidity to increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme events like floods, droughts and cyclones. Changes in climatic conditions can have serious implications on agricultural production agriculture dependent livelihoods and food. Freshwater availability is also at risk due to potential glacial melt and changes in river flows along the Himalayan range.
Vulnerability to climate change and natural disasters also has a strong linkage with poverty and has the potential to create multiple stresses over the stresses that already exist. It is, therefore imperative that the country adopts measures aimed at building resilience to such risks. The most important measure of adaptation is development itself and acceleration of inclusive growth is the key to combat expected adversities.
Biodiversity related challenges
India is a mega diverse country, with about eight oercent of the world’s biodiversity, high percentage of endemic floral and faunal specials, and four biodiversity hotspots. This biodiversity is under severe threat both within and outside the protected area (PA) network, due to the loss and/or fragmentation of its habitat to competing uses. The global struggle against poverty and hunger cannot be won without enhanced conservation, and sustainable natural resource management. The Biodiversity Act of 2002 provides for access and benefit sharing related to traditional knowledge and biodiversity. India has taken a number of proactive measures related to biodiversity conservation. Since 1991, the government has committed funds, particularly in the field of PA management, for eco-development (integrated conservation and development), along with site specific package comprising measures for conserving biodiversity through local community development. There have been some successful examples of the eco-development programme like the Periyar Tiger Reserve. In recognition of the need to protect the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot, the Moet set up a Panel in 2010 to study its ecological status and recommend improvements. The Panel has recently submitted its report.
Conclusion

Energy Security

Energy Security 
In addition to the above mentioned resource and environmental concerns, high energy needs pose serious challenges. In order to attain its developmental goals, India meeds to grow at a fast pace for which energy remains an integral input. Rapid urbanization, industriazation, rising incomes and the growing use of energy intensive products are driving India’s demand for energy. Lack of access to modern energy services and its implications for human well-being mean that energy supplies need to grow to reach the unserved population. In India, 35.5% of the population still lives without access to electricity.
Addressing growth and energy poverty could have significant implications for energy supplies. Though there are significant coal reserves they are mostly located in environmentally sensitive areas and are inferior in quality.

E-waste

E-waste is a collective terminology for the entire stream of electronic equipment, such as TVs, refrigerators, telephones, air conditioners, computers and mobile phone that has reached its end of life (EOL) for its current user, such devices are generally considered toxic when disassembled or incinerated and are typically targeted for hazardous disposal or are slated for recovery and reuse. As a result, the e-waste industry is emerging with markets that need to be assessed for growth potential.
Resource security Water, land and food security 
Demand for water for multiple uses has been increasing. This is especially so in agriculture for irrigation, industry and for domestic consumption. India is witnessing a decline in per capita availability of water over the past few decades. Population increase, rising incomes and industrial growth has also resulted in decrease of water availability per capita. Water availability on a per capita cubic meter basis is estimated to decline from 1730 to 1240 in case of India.

Water Quality / Increase in solid waste and e-waste

Water Quality
Urbanization and development activities, land degradation, and inadequate infrastructure for wastewater disposal are major reasons that lead to rapid deterioration in water quality in the majority of rivers, streams, and lakes in India. According to CPCB during 2005-06, of 115 sewage treatment plants in major Indian States 35% continued to discharge polluted water beyond the stipulated norms. Inter-sectoral impacts may also arise when industrial effluents flow directly to agricultural land, affecting soil and groundwater while possible contaminating drinking water wells.
Apart from the above seawater intrusion into freshwater aquifers in coastal regions impact freshwater availability and usage. Surface water sources like rivers and lakes face a greater danger of biological contamination due to high pollution loads.
Increase in solid waste and e-waste
One key challenge is the rapidly increasing amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Indian cities. The annual estimates from various studies suggest that MSW generation in India ranges between 40 MT and 55 MT. Along with the increase in waste generation there is also change in the composition of waste generation. Plastic waste is a growing environmental concern.

Making growth inclusive / Infrastructure shortages

Making growth inclusive
A major concern of policy –makers is that despite the significant acceleration in growth in the period since the Earth Summit, the benefits of economic growth have eluded large disadvantaged sections of the population. Much of the growth has occurred in the industrial and service sector, with the agricultural sector being stagnant. Some of the poorer states, with large sections of their population in the agricultural sector have shown low growth rates resulting in increasing regional disparities. Inter-personal, inter-regional as well as inter-community inequalities have been on the rise. The states with developed markets and good physical and social infrastructure have grown at a much faster rate than the others. In twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012-2017), the Planning Commission’s focus has been on instilling ‘inclusive growth.’
Infrastructure shortages
India has infrastructure shortages, a consequence of its economic growth outstripping infrastructure availability. This has impeded investment flow and constrained economic growth in the country. For ensuring sustainability of the growth process, it is imperative that infrastructure constraints are removed particularly in energy, roads, ports, airports and urban rural infrastructure. While in some areas, such as roads and airports, it has been possible to have the private sector participate in infrastructure investment; in many other areas the progress has been slow. Many new projects, and improved cargo handing at ports have been initiated, but there continues to be a massive gap. Public private partnerships (PPP) to execute infrastructure projects will be essential in the years to come. Projected investment required for infrastructure development during the twelfth Plan period (2012-2017) is INR 40.99 trillion; half of this is expected to come from the private sector.
Environmental quality concerns

Production and consumption patterns

Production and consumption patterns
In global debates pertaining to climate change, unsustainable production and consumption patterns in the developed world have been highlighted. Even in the domestic context, environmental degradation is linked closely to unsustainable production and consumption patterns. According to a study carries out by TERI on Environmental Kuznets Curve, India’s total SO2 and NOx emission had increased from almost 7.12 million metric tons to 9.82 million metric tons between 1995 and 2005 with a CAGR of 3.63% .

Greendex, an indicator developed by the National Geographic Society and Globescan ranks India and Brazil as first in terms of environmentally sustainable consumption and lifestyle. With rising middle class developing countries are taking initiatives to promote sustainable consumption. However, the continuation of unsustainable patterns of consumption and lifestyles still need to be addressed adequately by developed countries.

Unsustainable patterns of consumption and lifestyles still need to be addressed adequately by
developed countries.

Several traditional practices that are sustainable and environment friendly continue to be a regular part of the lives of people in developing countries. With increasing purchasing power, consumption linked to market driven consumerism is stressing the resource base of developing countries further. Moreover, subsidies often lead to wasteful and unsustainable consumption by distorting the value of a resource.

Urbanization and migration

Urbanization and migration
India has witnessed rapid urbanization in the last few years. The urban population has been growing and is projected and is projected to grow at a much faster rate than the rural population. The increase in urban population has been attributed both to natural growth and push migration form villages. In some states, urban poverty seems to be greater than those in rural areas. Among urban areas, poverty rates in small towns are markedly higher than those in large metropolitan areas. Since a disproportionate share of India’s urban population resides in small and medium size cities, the urban poor are also found to be greater in these smaller places.

The growth generates pressure on public infrastructure, including basic health and sanitation services creating a disorganized urban landscape, and constitutes a social crisis that can result in major health risks and pose threats to sustainable development. This growth in urban population leads to the creation of urban slums. Which are at high risk from outbreaks of contagious diseases, such as tuberculosis, malaria, dengue, cholera, typhoid and plague resulting from poor environmental conditions?

Urban sprawl also creates a mobility challenge – access to transportation that is required to meet economic and social needs. The growing transport demand in India accompanied by massive urbanization, increasing vehicular density and growing consumption of energy (mostly fossil fuels) Government and undertaken various initiatives to promote sustainability in the transport sector. These initiatives include the National Urban Transport Policy, National Highway Development Project, and implementation of strict emission norms and development of vehicle efficiency standards. Much more needs be done to address sustainability concerns at the urban level through working with local bodies and other stakeholders.

Health Challenges / Regional disparities / Sanitation and drinking water-related challenges / Education access and quality

Health Challenges
Though the government spending on health has increased over the last years and the been as important element in reducing poverty, much more attention is required of the poverty-health linkage. Child malnutrition and under-nutrition in particular, remains high, and improvements have been much lower than what would be expected given India’s pace of GDP growth. Besides inadequate access to public sector health facilities, there are also concerns with the quality of the services provided. This has resulted in an increase in the demand for private health care services, which create their own concerns given the wide differences in quality of private health care, high prices, which makes it unaffordable for many and high medical costs, which push many people into poverty. What is needed to meet this challenge is the complementarity between the high government spending in the health sector and reforms to improve accountability in service delivery, both by the private and public sector. Better regulation and oversight of private providers will play an important role. The design of the health insurance scheme, which the government is planning to toll out in the near future to improve access to health care, will be very critical to improved outcomes.
Regional disparities
Low- income states of Bihar, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh are behind other states on most social indicators. The Multidimensional Poverty index (MP) study report indicates that eight Indian states, namely Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Odisha, and West Bengal are home to 421 million multidimensional poor persons. Similarly disparities are evident in India at the inter- state and rural –urban level in the provision of basic services, which include water supply sanitation and clean energy.
Sanitation and drinking water-related challenges 

Green Economy / Impact of the outcome of Rio+20 the development agenda of India

Green Economy

There is no one agreed definition of Green Economy. India has viewed the concept to Green Economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication; which was one of the themes of Rio+20 Green Economy is one of the means to achieve sustainable development. The concept should not lead to any form of green protectionism, imposition of conditionality or any intrusion in the domestic policy space. The document affirms that there are different approached, visions, models and tools available to each country, in accordance with its national circumstances and priorities to achieve sustainable development in its three dimensions which is the overarching goal. Green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication is one of the important tools available for achieving sustainable development and that it could provide options for policy making but should not be a right set of rules. The outcome of summit firmly rejects the unilateral measures and trade barriers as well as unwarranted conditionalities on ODA and finance under the guise of Green Economy.

Impact of the outcome of Rio+20 the development agenda of India

One of the key priorities of India in the negotiations was to protect the domestic policy space for our development. The outcome document has done so by reaffirming the Rio principles including CBDR and equity and avoiding a prescriptive outcome with unilateral norms and targets. Thus, we could follow our own policies on sustainable development and poverty eradication. We would keenly follow up on the four process/ mechanisms proposed in the outcome document on finalizing strategy , technology transfer, SDGs and high level political forum with a view to protecting our interests.

Sustainable Development Goals and Millennium Development Goals

Sustainable Development Goals and Millennium Development Goals

The conference was remarkable for kick-starting the process on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 

The conference recognized the importance and utility of having a set of sustainable development goals, based on Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. 

The SDGs would address and incorporate in a balanced way all three dimensions of sustainable development and their inter linkages. 

Since SDGs are expected to become a part of the post- 2015 global development agenda, SDGs would guide the international community towards inclusive sustainable development.

As compared to SDGs, the Millennium development Goals (MDGs) were not developed through an inter- governmental process. 

All the MDGs are applicable only to the developing countries except for MDG 8 which relates to aid and finance.

Rio+20 Summit

Rio+20 Summit

The objective of the Rio+20 Conference was to secure renewed political commitment for sustainable development , review progress and remaining implementation gaps and assess new and emerging challenges, since the UN Conference on Environment  & Development held in Rio de Janerio in 1992 and the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002. Towards this end, the Conference has two themes viz. (a) Green Economy in the context of Sustainable Development & Poverty Eradication (GESDPE); and (b) Institutional Framework for Sustainable Development (IFSD).

Achievements of Rio +20

The centrality of the Principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) has been reaffirmed. SO has been the importance of the principles of Equity and CBDR in the context of climate change negotiations. Poverty eradication, which is the central concern to developing countries, has been placed at the center of the global development agenda. The outcome document is notable for having launched two important mechanisms, one on finance and the other on technology transfer. India played a key role in conceptualizing and negotiating the formulation in the document on these two mechanisms, which are of crucial importance for developing countries. The launch of the processes to develop SDGs and to define the format and organizational aspects of the proposed high level political forum to follow up on the implementation of sustainable development are the important contributions of this conference.

Vienna Convention / Rotterdam Convention / Stockholm Convention / Basel Convention

Vienna Convention

India became a Party to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer on 19 June 1991 and the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer on 17 September 1992. Consequently, it ratified the Copenhagen, Montreal and Beijing Amendments in 2003. A detailed Country Programme for phasing out ozone depleting substances (ODSs) was prepared in 1993, supported by regulatory and fiscal measures as specified in the Montreal Protocol with financial and technical support received from the Multilateral Fund (MLF). The Ministry of Environment and Forests established an Ozone Cell and a steering committee on the Montreal Protocol to facilitate implementation of the India Country Programme for phasing out ODS (ozone depleting substances ) production by 2010.

Rotterdam Convention

One of the key conventions developed to protect countries from use of hazardous materials is the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in international Trade. This convention was signed in 1998 and became effective from 2004. It is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to import of hazardous chemicals. The Convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of Hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling. Include directions on safe handing, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. India ratified the Convention on Prior informed Consent Procedure for certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International trade in 2006.

Basel Convention

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of hazardous Wastes and their Disposal is the most comprehensive global environmental agreement

Convention on international Trade In Endangered species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)

Convention on international Trade In Endangered species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)

India became a party to the CITES Convention in 1976. It hosted the 3^rd Conference of Parties at New Delhi in 1981. 

Trade in wild flora in wild flora and fauna, including the species listed in CITES are regulated in India through the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1971, the import and Export Policy and the Customs Act (1962). 

The wildlife (Protection) Act was designed with the objective of effective control of poaching and illegal trade in wildlife and its products. 

The Act has been amended in 1982, 1986, 1991, and 2002 and in 2006 to make the provisions more stringent. Hunting of all species was banned in 1991. 

Hunting of wild animals is prohibited except in exceptional circumstances, such as when rogue animals kill humans and destroy homes. 

India has signed a Protocol with Republic of China for taking up joint measures to crack down on poaching of tigers. 

Smuggling and selling to tiger body parts and their derivatives. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed with Nepal to establish a Joint Task Force to check Trafficking across borders as well.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

India became a signatory to the Convention on biological Diversity (CBD) in December 1993 and ratified the convention in February 1994. 

CBD addresses biodiversity conservation, habitat preservation, intellectual property rights, bio-safety, and indigenous peoples’ rights. Since India signed the agreement, it has been submitting regularly its reports to the CBD Secretariat on the progress of implementation of the decisions taken by successive Conference of Parties (COP) meetings. 

In the recent meetings held in Nagoya in 2010, the parties (COP) meetings. In the recent meetings held in Nagoya in 2010, the parties (including India) successfully concluded the Nagoya Protocol on Access to genetic Resources and the fair and Equitable sharing of Benefits (ABS). 

Under the Protocol, Parties will be legally obliged to follow rules designed to prevent bio-piracy and provide benefits, including financial benefits, to other Parties when their genetic resources are accessed. 

United Nations convention to combat Desertification (UNCCD)

United Nations convention to combat Desertification (UNCCD)

The convention came into effect in 1997 and all member countries affected by the problem of desertification have an obligation to prepare an action plan to address all issues concerning desertification and drought. 

Eradication of poverty is key concern in dry lands; hence, it is important to protect the land form deforestation, fragmentation, degradation and drought that could exacerbate the vulnerabilities of the population in these areas. 

India has been designated as the host country by the UNCCD for the Asian Regional Action Programme on Agro forestry and soil Conservation, under the 

Thematic Network Programme (TPN). This network facilitates cooperation between countries with respect to combating desertification and associated efforts towards joint forestry management. Including forestry in the arid and semi-arid regions. 

Two national level institutes, namely Arid Forest Research institute (AFRI ) and Central Arid Zone Research institute (CAZRI) located in Jodhpur, are engaged in development and dissemination of appropriate technologies for the arid and semi- arid areas of the country.

Ramsar Convention

Ramsar Convention
India became a contracting party to the Ramsar Convention in 1981 and has been implementing conservation programmes for wetlands mangroves and coral reefs.

Until 2007, 25 wetland sites in India were designated as Ramsar sites of International Importance. There is close coordination between implementing units of Ramsar with that of CBD at the national level. 

India took a lead role in the formulation of Ramsar guidelines on integration of wetlands into river basin management. As a follow up to this, CBD- Ramsar River Basin initiative was undertaken and a joint programme was developed for integrated management of wetlands, biological diversity, and river basins.

Several wide-ranging policies, strategies, and plans have been formulated policy statements on Environment and Development (1992) and national Water Policy (2002) highlight conservation and sustainable development of wetlands. 

There are effective linkages across various ministries and government agencies, including Ministry of Environment and Forests, planning Commission, Ministry of Agriculture, and Indian Board for Wildlife Forest Research Institute, Institute of Wetland Management and Ecological Design among others.

Key policies and programmes relevant to sustainable development Economic

Key policies and programmes relevant to sustainable development Economic:

New industrial Policy, 1991

Pharmaceuticals Policy, 2002

Marketing Assistance Scheme for SME

Export Promotion Capital Goods Scheme

National Mineral Policy, 2008

New Exploration and Licensing Policy

National Telecom policy, 2011

National Electricity Policy, 2005

Social:

Key policies and programmes National Housing and Habitat Policy, 1998

Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojna, 2000

National Policy for Empowerment of Women, 2001

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan, 2003

National Policy for Urban street Vendors, 2004

National Rural Health Mission, 2005

National Food security mission, 2007

National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy, 2007

Debt Waiver and debt Relief Scheme, 2008

National Mission on Education, 2009

Environment:

United Nations Framework Convention on climate Change (UNFCCC)

United Nations Framework Convention on climate Change (UNFCCC)

India signed the UNFCCC on 10 June 1992 and ratified it on 1 November 1993 .it acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in August 2002. 

Under the UNFCCC, developing countries such as India do not have binding Green House gas (GHG) mitigation commitments through application of the Principle of Common, but Differentiated Responsibility and Respective Capability (CBDR).

As agreed in Copenhagen, India communicated to the UNFCCC secretariat, its voluntary mitigation actions to reduce the emissions intensity of GDP by 20-25 percent by 2020 in comparison to the 2005 level, excluding the agriculture sector. 

The Government’s stand on climate change is in accordance with the principles of equity, and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities as enshrined in the UNFCCC. 

The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), released on 30 June 2008, outlines India’s strategy to meet the challenge of climate change. 

The National Action Plan provides for eight missions that will enable the country to adapt to climate change and enhance the ecological sustainability of India’s development path.

Environment / Nature conservation / Hazardous material / Marine Environment

     Environment

India has been very active in all the international forums relating to environmental protection and has signed all the multilateral agreements relating to the environment with a few exceptions. In 2002, India reaffirmed its commitment to sustainable development in the World Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg. India is a part of 94 major mutilated environmental agreements (MEAs) listed in Environment Treaties and Resource indicators.

Multilateral Environmental Agreements by India

Nature conservation

1.       Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

2.       Convention on international Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES).

3.       The wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC)

4.       Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)

5.       Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT)

6.       Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

7.       International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTC)

8.       United Nations Forum on forests (UNFF)

9.       International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

10.   Global Tiger Forum (GTF)

Hazardous material

International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions

International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions

India is one of the founder members of the international Labour Organization (ILO). The influence of ILO Conventions as a standard of reference for labour legislation and practices in India has been significant. Under the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulations) Act, 1986 and through the National Policy on Child labour, ILO has financially supported preparation of certain industry specific projects in India. The implementation of the international Programme of Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in India has created a positive impact towards understanding the problem of child labour and highlighting the need for elimination of child labour.

Human Rights conventions

India is also party to a number of major international treaties on human rights. These include international Convention on the  Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1968) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1979) ,Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1993) and Convention on the rights of the Child (1992) with regard to international criminal law, India is party to Slavery Convention of 1926, genocide Convention of 1948 and the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity of 1968. 

 Social

India is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in all of its specialized agencies. India’s representation has provided an opportunity for leadership in words affairs. India was at the forefront of the UN’s struggle against colonialism and apartheid, its effort towards global disarmament, and towards the creation of a more equitable international order.

International Agreements and India

Principles by Themes

The following themes occur in a number of sets of principles:

·         Alternative energy sources

·         Assumption of greater responsibility by industrial nations for sustainability solutions.

·         Clarifying and acting on values

·         Diversity of life

·         Elimination of over-consumption

·         Eradication of poverty

·         Gender equity

·         Greater democratic participation in decision- making

·         Increased access to reliable information

·         International cooperation/global partnership

·         Limits to nature’s resources

·         Needs of future generations

·         Peace and security

·         Precautionary principle

 International Agreements and India

Since the United Nations Stockholm Conference of the Human Environment in 1972, the international environmental legal regime has experienced manifold progress. At a broader level, the agreements regime has expanded in scope since environmental issues are no longer considered in isolation to social and economic concerns. With economic growth and development, issues related to ecological sustainability and social equity have also been receiving growing importance. India has remained at the forefront of global sustainable development policy formulation and has supported the development of global agreements and policies that are fair and equitable.

Key Agreements

1.       Economic:

Global trade agreements

Some definitions of SD(sustainable development)

Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is form Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report:

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains which it two key concepts:

·         The concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and

·         The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.”

Organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.’

All definitions of sustainable development require that we see the world as a system- a system that connects space; and a system that connects time.

When you think of the world as a system over space, you grow to understand that air pollution from North America affects air quality in Asia, and that pesticides sprayed in Argentina could harm fish stocks off the coast of Australia.

And when you think of the world as a system over time, you start to realize that the decisions our grandparents made about how to farm the land continue to affect agricultural practice today; and the economic policies we endorse today will have an impact on urban poverty when our children are adults.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

A Brief History of Sustainable Development

The Sustainability Reporting Program works from a definition of sustainability that sees human activities as part of and dependent upon the natural world. In Scientific terms, the human ecosystem, including the communities we build, is a subset of the larger ecosystem of the Earth.

Sustainability is about meeting basic human needs and wants. People value their health and that of their children, economic security and happiness. These are primary elements in our quality of life.

Most definitions stress that sustainability requires making decisions that recognize the connections between actions and effects in the environment, economy and society. Sustainability is very much about what kind of a legacy we want to leave for our children and grandchildren.

The sustainability idea as we know it emerged in a series of meetings and reports during the 1970s and 1980s. In 1972, the UN Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment marked the first great international meeting on how human activities were harming the environment and putting humans at risk.

The 1980 World Conservation Strategy, prepared by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature along with the UN Environment Program and the World Wildlife Fund, promoted the idea of environmental protection in the self-interest of the human species.

In 1987, the UN- sponsored Brundtland Commission released Our Common Future, a report that captured widespread concerns about the environment and poverty in many parts of the world.

The Brundtland report said that economic development cannot stop, but it must change course to fit within the planet’s ecological limits. It also popularized the term sustainable development, which it defined as development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Biome / UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

Biome

The natural ecosystems on global scale having almost similar biotic and a biotic conditions are called as biome. A Biome is a major ecological region of distinctive plant and animal group well adapted to the physical environment of its distribution area. The studies of biomes include study of global distribution Patten of climate, soil, plants and animals as well as their special adaptations to the regional climate.  

Vegetation is the most dominant component of biomes due to their enormous biomass. Vegetation and climate in turn are inter-related and world is divided into different biomes on the basis of major world climates, as following:

1.       Terrestrial Biome

(a)    Tundra Biome

(b)   Temperate Biome – Taiga Forest; Temperate Deciduous Forest; Temperate Grassland ; and Mediterranean

(c)    Tropical Biome - Desert; Tropical savanna ; and Tropical Forest

2.       Freshwater Biome

3.       Marine Biome

We will study Monsoon Biome which is actually included in Deciduous Forest Biome under Tropical Biome.

Monsoon Forest Biome

Strategic plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 / Aichi Biodiversity Targets Aichi Biodiversity Targets

Strategic plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, including Aichi Biodiversity Targets

Aichi Biodiversity Targets

The tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held in October 2010, in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets for the 2011-2020 periods. This new plan will be the overacting framework on Biodiversity, not only for the biodiversity –related conventions, but for the entire United Nations system.

Aichi Biodiversity Targets: Fewer than five broad strategic goals 20 targets have been decided.

·         Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society.

·         Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on Biodiversity and promote sustainable use.

·         Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity.

·         Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.

·         Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning knowledge management and capacity building.

Nagoya Protocol / Cartagena Protocol

Nagoya Protocol

The Nagoya  Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding, thereby contributing to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components. It was adapted by the Conference of the parties to the Convention biological Diversity at its tenth meeting in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. The Nagoya Protocol will enter into force 90 days after the date of deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources is one of the three objectives of the convention on Biological Diversity.

Cartagena Protocol

 The Cartagena protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

     Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legally-binding treaty with three main goals: conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. Its overall objective is to encourage actions which will lead to a sustainable future.

The conservation of Biodiversity is a common concern of humankind. The CBD covers biodiversity at all levels: Ecosystems, species and genetic resources. It also covers biotechnology through the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In fact, it covers all possible domains that are directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its role in development, ranging from science, politics and education to agriculture, business, culture and much more. The governing body of the CBD is the Conference of the Parties (COP). This ultimate authority of all governments (or parties) that have ratified the treaty meets every two year to review progress, set priorities and commit to work plans.

In 2010. Parties to the CBD adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011- 2020, a ten-year framework for action by all countries and stakeholders to safeguard biodiversity and the benefits it provides to people.

The secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) is based in Montreal, Canada. Its main function is to assist Governments In the implementation of the CBD and its programmes of work, to organize meetings, draft documents, and coordinate with other international organizations and collect and spread information. The Executive Secretary is the head of the Secretariat.

Fast facts:

International Efforts - International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) – Red List of Threatened Species

International Efforts

1.       International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) – Red List of Threatened Species: IUCN publishes the list of species of plants and animals which hare threatened for their survival and are facing extinction from time to time. It contains following categories:

(a)    Extinct species

(b)   Extinct in Wild species

(c)    Critically Endangered species

(d)   Endangered species

(e)   Vulnerable species

(f)     Near Threatened species

(g)    Least concern species

Few important Categories:

(1)    Endangered species- those in immediate danger of extermination i.e. extinction.

(2)    Critically endangered species- will not survive without direct human intervention and protection.

(3)    Threatened species- so called because of decline in numbers.

(4)    Rare species- not presently in danger but are subject to risk.

Carbon trading / Ball Action Plan –COP- 13

Carbon trading

It is a name given to the exchange of emission permits. This exchange of emissions may take place within the economy or may take the form of international transactions. Emission permit is known alternatively as carbon credit. Carbon credits are certificate awarded to the countries that are successful in reducing the emissions that caused global Warming. Carbon credits are measured units of certified emission reduction and each CER is equivalent to 1 metric ton of CO₂.

Methods/ Types of carbon trading

·         Emission trading / Cap and Trade – when a country is able to reduce its emissions by more than the specified amount it can exchange some of its credit to another country who fails to reduce its emission level as per assigned amount. This kind of exchange of emission allowance is called emission trading.

·         Offset trading – In this a country can invest in carbon projects abroad to earn carbon credit and thereby meet its reduction commitment. Offset trading is thus nothing but investment abroad in Carbon-project. According to Kyoto protocol if such a joint venture is between developed countries it is called joint implementation, while if it is taken along with any developing and poor country it is called clean development mechanism (CDM) .

Reducing GHG Emissions: Kyoto Mechanisms-

The UN’s Kyoto protocol established binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community. To help achieve these targets the protocol introduced three “flexible mechanisms”- international emissions trading (IET), joint implementation (JI), and the clean development Mechanism (CDM).

Parties to UNFCCC / Evaluation of Kyoto Protocol

Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:

·         Annex  I countries – industrialized countries and economies in transition

·         Annex II countries – developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries

·         Developing countries.

Annex I countries which have ratified the Protocol have committed to reduce their emission levels of greenhouse gasses to targets that are mainly set below their 1990 levels. They may do this by allocating reduced annual allowances to the major operators within their borders. These operators can only exceed their allocations if they buy emission allowances, or offset their excesses through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to UNFCCC.

Annex II countries are a sub-group of the Annex I countries. They comprise the OECD members, excluding those that were economies in transition in 1992.

Developing countries are not required to reduce emission levels unless developed countries supply enough funding and technology. Setting no immediate restrictions under UNFCCC serves three purposes:

·         It avoids restrictions on their development because emissions are strongly  linked to industrial capacity

·         They can sell emissions credits to nations whose operators have difficulty meeting their emissions targets

·         They get money and technologies for low- carbon investments from Annex II countries.

Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries when they are sufficiently developed.

Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHGs emission in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activities, the protocol places a heavier burden on developed countries under the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. The Kyoto protocol was adopted in Kyoto in Japan on December 11, 1997 and entered into force on Feb 16, 2005.

Evaluation of Kyoto Protocol

International Remedial Measures

A.      For Ozone Hole

(1)    Vienna convention, 1985 for protection and maintenance of ozone layer.

(2)    Montreal Protocol on substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987 (a protocol to Vienna Convention). It was established to protect ozone layer by phasing out the production of ozone depleting substances such as CFCs, halons by 1996. It gave 10 years extension period for developing countries.

(3)    Toronto Summit, 1988 for reduction in the emission of CO₂.

(4)    London Convention 1989: it sought (a) ban on CFC and halons by 2000; (b) recognition of methyl chloroform and carbon tetrachloride as ozone depleltors; (c) setting up of special fund.

(5)    Inter – Government Panel on Climate change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 by UNEP and WMO.

B.      For Global warming

1.       First Earth Summit or United Nations Conference on Environment and development, 1992: 

Global warming / Green house Gas effect

Green house Gas effect

Green house is a glass house that helps in artificial cultivation of plants by providing a conducive environment for their growth. GHE was given its name by French physicist named Joseph Fourier in 1827 who compared the Earth atmosphere to a closed glass vessel and observed that air around the earth filters sunlight exactly like glass roof.

Global warming refers to phenomena of increased trapping of terrestrial radiations (infra-red waves) because of increased concentration of GHG resulting in increase of average global temperature on the earth surface. GHG that are responsible for Green House effect in atmosphere include carbon –di-oxide

(Largest volume), methane, and chlorofluorocarbons (highest trapping capacity, oxide of nitrogen, sculpture hexafluoride and water vapors. GHG found in atmosphere cover the earth like a blanket. Although high concentrations of these gases are harmful to the environment, if these gases would not have been there then the temperature of the Earth would have been 18 ⁰C or- 19⁰ C. Of all GHG emitted in the atmosphere CO₂ and CH₄ are having maximum concentration, they both together account for 90% of the GHG emissions.

Because of excessive deforestation, use of fossil fuel, automobile exhaust and various other industrial activities. The level of CO₂ especially has significantly increased which has resulted in increased temperature of earth surface, in 1957 it was recorded 311 ppm (parts per million) and in 2005 it was recorded as 379 ppm. Global warming has occurred in two phases from 1910 to 1940 by about 0.350⁰C and more strongly from 1970 onwards to the present by about 0.55⁰ C, taking the global temperature to about 14.4⁰C. If the increased concentration of CO2 and other GHG continues this way by the end of 21^st century, earth will became altogether an inhabitable planted.

Impact of Global Warming

Mechanisms of Ozone Depletion

1.       Natural process: Ultra Violet Solar Radiation; increased solar radiation from sun sports; redistribution of ozone due to upper atmospheric circulation.

2.       Anthropogenic Processes: The chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and halous released from synthetic chemicals using devices such as refrigerators, spray can dispensers etc reach stratosphere and breakdown the ozone molecule. Similarly sulfur aerosols e.g. HF₆ emitted from factories, nitrous oxides (NO) molecules released from jet places cause destruction of ozone molecules. With rise in worldwide aviation travel NO release into stratosphere is rising causing both ozone depletion and global warming. A large ozone hole was observed to have been formed over Antarctica but measures taken subsequent to Montreal Protocol have substantially helped to recover the hole with ozone again.

Effects of Ozone Depletion

1.       UV rays will reach earth’s surface causing rise of earth’s temperature causing global warming. CFC increases the greenhouse effect of greenhouse effect of CO₂.

Processes of Global warming

Major sources and processes of Global warming include ozone depletion and greenhouse effects. Ozone depleting substances contribute to global warming by increasing UV radiation.

1.       Ozone Depletion: The stratospheric ozone layer is mostly concentrated between attitudes of 12km to 35 km from earth’s surface. It is considered as protective shield and earth’s umbrella because it prevents ultra violet (UV) solar radiation from reaching the earth’s surface. Thus the presence of ozone layer in the stratosphere is of vital significance for all biota including plants, animal and man in the biosphere. In the absence of this layer no life is possible in the biosphere because all the UV rays of the sun will reach earth’s surface and consequently temperature of the earth’s surface and lower atmosphere will rise to such an extent that the earth will turn into a blast furnace.

The ozone is produced by the actions of UV rays on ordinary oxygen atoms by the photochemical process which is responsible for the constant transformation of oxygen to ozone and form ozone back to oxygen.

O₂ + O ≈O₃

Thus constant formation and destruction of ozone is natural process if not interfered by man.

GLOBAL WARMING & CLIMATE CHANGE

Global warming refers to gradual rise in atmospheric and ground surface air temperatures and conseques changes in global radiation balance, caused mainly by anthropogenic processes leading to climatic changes at different levels. Global warming is a result of rise in proportion of atmospheric green house gases (GHG) than their normal level. The rise of GHG levels has been attributed to the process of industrialization, urbanization and pollution caused by vehicular, industrial, domestic and agricultural emissions. The main component gases of GHG emissions are – carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide and ozone. The processes of global warming have led to the effects of climate change, the evidences of which have been scientifically corroborated by international panel on Climate Change (IPCC), formed under United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) and constituted by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

Evidences of Global warming:

1.       Increase in air temperatures: It has been estimated that the overall increase in the air temperature in 20^th century has been about 0.5 to 0.7º C. The 1990s saw seven out of ten warmest years of last century. The global circulation models have shown rise of 0.4 to 0.8º C in the 20^th century. The increase in frequency of EI Nino events, hurricanes and cyclones between 1970s to 2012 also denotes climatic changes due to warming of earth’s surface and its atmosphere. IPCC report has shown that concentration of atmospheric CO2 has increased.

2.       Melting of Mountain and Continental Glaciers: Many reports have suggested that Himalayan   Glaciers have receded. Similarly there have been reports of retreat of glaciers in Alps of New Zealand. Mt. Kenya has lost its most extensive glaciers in the past century. The glaciers of Greenland too have been detaching and receding at fast pace.

3.        Warming of Ocean Water and melting of ice Sheets and ice Bergs in Antarctic and Arctic Sea.

Functioning of an Ecosystem

Functioning of an Ecosystem

An ecosystem is driven by the flow of energy and circulation of matter by biogeochemical cycle between the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The solar radiation is the basic input of energy entering the ecosystem. In the living organisms or biosphere, the energy (chemical energy) and matter (food), collectively called as food energy, are transferred via food chain and food web through various trophic levels. Thus all the elements of an ecosystem are interdependent and integrated. An ecosystem itself is integrated with other ecosystems and thus they all become interdependent. In fact every ecosystem is part of the larger ecosystem, until the larger ecosystem of the earth-the biosphere – is formed. That is why we see climatic changes happening in one ecosystem affecting the other ecosystems.

Productivity of Ecosystem

Only a small fraction of sunlight striking the earth is concerted to chemical energy by primary producers. The rate of conversion of solar energy into chemical energy (organic matter) by autotrophs is called productivity of ecosystem. The productivity of ecosystem depends to two things:-

(i)                  The availability of solar radiation to autotrophic primary producers. The productivity of ecosystems goes in decreasing from equator to poles as the amount of solar energy received goes on decreasing from equator to poles. Therefore, plants in tropical areas will have higher productivity than plants in temperate or tundra region.

(ii)                The efficiency of plants to concert solar energy into food or chemical energy which is also called as primary production. It is measured in two ways:

(a)    Gross primary productivity which is total amount of chemical energy assimilated by the autotrophs from solar energy.

Ecosystem Ecology

Ecosystem Ecology emphasizes the movement of energy and nutrients among the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. It examines physical and biological structures and how these characteristics interact with each other. A major focus of ecosystem ecology is on functional processes, ecological mechanisms that maintain the structure and services produced by ecosystems. These include production of biomass, decomposition and tropic interactions. In short ecosystem ecology studies the interdependent functional processes behind food chain and food web and how all the applied to cases such as increased effects of atmospheric co₂ on coral reefs and fishes or to understand the effects of increased pesticides application on the pests and birds preying on them.

Ecosystems

Having done with basic concepts we will return to the ecosystems. As said earlier, ecosystem is a fundamental functional unit characterized by total assemblage of biotic community and abiotic components and their mutual interactions in a given space time unit.

Ecosystems can be classified as following:

(i)                 On the basis of habitats:

(a)   Terrestrial – Upland or mountain; Lowland; Warm Desert and Cold Desert.

(b)   Aquatic – Fresh Water; Marine.

(ii)               On the basis of human intervention:

(a)   Natural ecosystems e.g. tall grass or Amazon rainforest ecosystem.

(b)   Artificial or cultivated ecosystems e.g. rice field ecosystem.

Components of the Ecosystem

Biosphere

Biosphere

Having defend ecology and ecosystem, the next thing is biosphere. In simple words, biosphere is the largest i.e. earth. Alternatively it is the global sum of all ecosystems on the earth. Biosphere is that part of the earth which contains living organisms- the biologically inhabited soil, air and water. So, biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Biosphere becomes the largest ecosystem because it (the biospheric ecosystem) consists of biotic component (plants, animals, man, and micro-organisms), abiotic component (land, air and water) and energy component (solar and geothermal energy) and these are on the scale of earth.

The components are inter-related through a series of large cyclic mechanisms, collectively called as biogeochemical cycle. In biospheric ecosystem there is a continuous exchange of energy and matter. While the circulation of energy is unidirectional, the materials are circulated cyclically called as biogeochemical cycle.

Biosphere when referred as one of the geochemical cycle components alongside lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere it means reference to the biota i.e. total sum of all living beings. These four spheres are the components of above mentioned biogeochemical cycle. In such a scenario the term ‘ecosphere ‘is used as encompassing of both biological and physical components of the planet.

There are some experiments of creating artificial biosphere involving closed ecosystem which are going on. For example, Biosphere 2 in USA, BIOS – 3 in Russia and Biosphere –j in Japan. Thus we can say those biospheres are any closed, self regulating systems containing ecosystems including the artificial ones.

Ecology

Ecology is the science which studies the inter-relationships between biotic and a biotic components of a natural ecosystem on one hand among biotic components on the other. Thus ecology is the study of interrelationships and various processes between all organisms and their environment as well as among the organisms themselves.   

Ernst Haeckel coined the term ‘Oekology’ (Greek: oikos – house or dwelling as habitat, logos—study of). The concept of ecology evolved from Darwin’s concept of evolution of species through natural selection involving interaction between biological species and habitat.

Ecology is studied into two branches. First, autecology is the study of ecological relationship of single species in a given ecosystem. Second, synecology is the study of group of species living together as communities in relation to their habitats of a given ecosystem. It can be mentioned here that a group of individual organisms of the same species in a given area is called a population. While a group of population of different species in a given area is called a community. Based on this we have population ecology and community ecology.

The basic concepts and the focus areas of ecology are as follows:

(1)   Ecosystem as the fundamental unit of ecological study.

ECOSYSTEM & ECOLOGY

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a fundamental functional unit of ecological study. An ecosystem is a system – ecological system – in which organisms interact with each other and with their environment in a given and unit-time. In other words an ecosystem is a biotic community together with its physical environment considered as an integrated unit. Implied within this definition is the concept of a structural and functional unit, unified through life processes.

An ecosystem is broadly composed of two components:

(1)   Biome – All the plants, animal and microorganisms, in fact all the living beings in a given spatial unit. These are biotic elements.

(2)   Habitat – The Physical environment i.e. a biotic elements such as air, water and land.

Both these components are integrated by the continuous flow of energy and matter between them. We can call Energy as the third component of the ecosystem.

In other words each organism (including humans) is affected by and interacts with its environment. That environment is formed from a combination of interactive nonliving and living elements. When we consider both forms of elements and their interactions as a single entity we have an ecosystem at same level of organization.

Ecotourism

Ecotourism is defined as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well –being of local people.” (TIES)

“Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples.” (IUCN)

Ecotourism is broadly defined as low impact travel to endangered and often undisturbed locations. It is different from traditional tourism because it allows the traveler to become educated about the areas- both in terms of the physical landscape and cultural characteristics, and often provides funds for conservation and benefits the economic development of places that are frequently impoverished. Most tourism in natural areas today is not ecotourism and is not, therefore, sustainable. Ecotourism is distinguished by its emphasis on conservation, education, traveler responsibility and active community participation.

Ecotourism and other forms of sustainable travel have origins with the environmental movement of the 1970s. Ecotourism itself did not become prevalent as a travel concept until the late 1980s. During that time, increasing environmental awareness and a desire to travel to natural location as opposed to built up tourist locations made ecotourism desirable.

Principles of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that those who implement and participate in ecotourism activities should follow the following ecotourism principles;

·         Minimize impact.